Flashbulb Recollections: Why your 9/11 memories are flawed

ELIZABETH A PHELPS & WILLIAM HIRST

How did you first learn of the attacks on Sept 11, 2001? Was it your mother's panicked phone call? Your roommate shaking you awake with the news? The anxious chatter on your commuter train? No matter how you answer, our research suggests you may have around 40% of the details wrong.

The questions are not about the facts of the event itself, but the circumstances of learning about it – what psychologists call flashbulb memories. People don't remember such personal details for most news events, but for a select few, they do. For instance, Americans of a certain age have flashbulb memories of President John F. Kennedy's assassination.

Flashbulb memories can last a lifetime. Twenty-five years after 9/11, people still describe in detail how they learned of the attacks. But there is an important caveat: these long-lasting memories may not be as accurate as you believe.

In research launched in the days after the attacks, we asked a few thousand people across the US to tell us their memories – how they learned about the attacks, who they were with, where they were, what they were doing and how they felt. We also asked how confident they were in their accuracy.

We followed up with the same people one year, three years and 10 years later, and are now collecting memories after a quarter century. After only a year, about 40% of these details did not match initial reports. Despite this inconsistency, people were extremely confident their memories were correct. For example, one person reported after a year he was on the train when he heard of the attacks; initially he said he was at work. Another initially described being with her husband, but a year later remembered being with her son.

Interestingly, these erroneous memories became stable over time. What most people reported after one year – even if in error – remained their memory when assessed later.

When we talk about these findings, we are usually met with protest. People often tell us this may be true of others, but they are certain their own memory is correct. We, too, believe our recollections of learning about 9/11 are accurate. But as memory researchers, we know there is a good chance around 40% of our details are wrong.

Neuroscientists have uncovered windows of time when memories are vulnerable to change. That memories of 9/11 change over time is not surprising. Memory is a reconstruction of past events, not a stable archive. Errors are common. What is surprising is that people find it hard to believe their memories changed.

This incredulity stems from the assumption that memory confidence reflects objective accuracy. While generally true, there are exceptions. Emotional events lead to better memory for a few key details and greater confidence in them, despite worse recall for many other details.

Furthermore, memories of emotional events are frequently shared. Researchers found that social acknowledgement boosts confidence in accuracy. The inflated confidence in 9/11 flashbulb memories emerges because the event was highly emotional and widely discussed.

Memories you believe accurate shape your identity and guide future actions. For significant personal events, memories often shift to reflect individuals in the best light, enhancing well-being. Being confident a memory is correct makes it an important part of who you are. Flashbulb memories are specific to a community and help bind you to it – including the social identity of being American.

A survey from the 1970s found 75% of Black Americans had flashbulb memories of Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination, whereas only 32% of white Americans did. Most Britons have a flashbulb memory of Princess Diana's death; most Italians do not.

Studies underscore how flashbulb memories bind people together. One found that Americans with a flashbulb memory of 9/11 were perceived to have a stronger national identity than those without one. Another showed that losing a 9/11 flashbulb memory was seen as damaging identity more than forgetting the attack itself.

So, if you told your story of learning about 9/11 on the recent anniversary, you likely recounted a tale you believe to be true, even if not completely accurate. But getting details wrong may not matter. By telling your story, you provide a narrative that binds you with other Americans, affirming shared membership in a community devastated by the Sept 11, 2001, attack.